CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTION, ASSESSMENT
AND REPORTING TERMS

analytical trait scoring: a scoring procedure in which performances are judged and scored separately for separate criteria, traits or dimensions. An example is providing separate scores for important decisions of problem solving in mathematics like understanding the problem, selecting and using mathematical procedures, and communicating clearly what was done. Analytical scoring is especially useful when the purpose of assessment is to provide students with very focused information about the strengths of their work and ideas about which traits need improvement.

assessment: the process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information about individuals or groups of learners, in order to understand their learning and to help them continue to grow.

benchmarks: examples of performances that serve as a standard against which other papers or performances may be judged.

classroom assessments: the assessments that take place in the midst of instruction and are an integral part of students' learning.

collaborate: to cooperate with, join together and participate; to work with each other to accomplish set goal(s).

communication: process of giving, sending, or exchanging thoughts, feelings, opinions, and information orally or in writing.

community of learners: students and teachers working together as a team to develop a sense of purpose and ability for learning.

conceptual connections: linking general and fundamental ideas needed to reason, problem solve, and/or create new knowledge.

constructivism: theory of learning that focuses on allowing students to make meaning for themselves through active learning experiences.

criteria: the key characteristics or qualities of fine work. They are used in rubrics and scoring guides to describe or as the basis for making informed judgments about the quality of student responses, products and performances. Other terms that are sometimes used are dimensions or traits.

criterion-referenced assessment: an assessment designed to show what a student knows, understands, or can do in relation to specific performance objectives. Criterion-referenced assessments are used to identify student strengths and weaknesses. For example, "She typed 55 words per minute without errors." Criterion-referenced assessments focus on what each child has learned and assume that most students can achieve the objectives of the curriculum.

discipline: branch of learning/knowledge; field of study.

discourse: all the ways of representing, thinking, talking, agreeing, and disagreeing that students and teachers engage in. Discourse may take a variety of forms: oral, written, pictorial, symbolic, and graphic.

evaluation: making judgments about the quality of student work using information about learning gathered through assessments. Good evaluations of learning are generally based on multiple sources of assessment information.

facilitator: person who plans and leads instructional activities, yet lets the students still be responsible for their own learning.

feed forward: the process of using criteria to communicate about student work in progress so that it can be improved as it is developing. When a teacher or student gives feed forward, they describe the strengths of current work and raise questions or make suggestions based on the criteria. Feed forward takes place in the midst of learning rather than at the end.

grade: a grade is a symbol (traditionally a number or letter) that summarizes the level of student work.

habits of mind: values, attitudes, and skills that indicate a person's outlook on learning.

holistic scoring: a scoring procedure that results in a single summary score for the whole or a piece of student work. Holistic scores are based on an overall impression of a student product or performance. Criteria are used in holistic scoring but result in a single score or description that reflects the single level of performance.

inquiry: investigation and search for information and knowledge.

multiple intelligences: theory formulated by Howard Gardner to describe the broad range of capabilities used by humans in solving problems and creating things and ideas.

norm-referenced assessment: an assessment designed to show how a student's performance or test results rank when compared to the work of an appropriate peer group. Norm-referenced assessments assume that some students will do very well, some will do very poorly, and most will fall somewhere in the middle. Norm-referenced assessments focus on providing information about which child knows most and which knows least and how to rank the work of everyone in between.

orchestrate: arrange, coordinate, or manipulate parts and elements to achieve an objective or goal.

paper and pencil assessment: an assessment that generally uses questions or test items that require students to select a response from choices that are given. Paper and pencil assessments use formats such as multiple choice, true/false, and matching. Another paper and pencil format which requires students to create a response is the short answer or fill in item.

pedagogy: the work of a teacher; the art and science of teaching; instructional methods and strategies.

performance assessment: an assessment based on direct observation of students' performances or products and involves using performance criteria to make judgments about the performance or product created by students. It uses assessment activities that require students to construct a response, create a product, or apply their knowledge and capabilities. Most performance assessments do not have a single correct answer and students can use more than one approach to complete the task. Good performance assessments consist of a learning task that students respond to and a set of criteria that guide scoring and feed forward.

personal communication: a form of assessment that uses oral questions and student responses as opportunities for assessment. It also includes interviews, student questions, and informal conversations.

reflective learning or reflective teaching: looking back at or reflecting on teaching/learning practices for the purpose of analyzing, evaluating, and strengthening the quality of learning experiences; reflecting on teaching/learning practices with a spirit of inquiry, continually seeking to understand which plans, decisions, and actions are effective in the learning process and which are not.

reliability: an indication of the consistency of scores across evaluators over time or across different versions of a test. For example, a test is reliable when different teachers or other evaluators give student responses the same or similar scores no matter when the assessment takes place or who does the scoring.

reporting: a process for communicating about student learning; preparing and presenting detailed accounts or statements about student learning. Grades are often used in reporting, but more recent trends in assessment have expanded reporting to include portfolio conferences, student self-assessment, exhibitions of mastery, narrative descriptions of learning, and developmental continua that show where studentsÕ current performance is in relation to common expectations.

rubric: a guide for scoring student performances and products. Rubrics are built from criteria that describe the characteristics of products or performances using a scale­descriptions or numbers that indicate levels of performance. For example:

4 points for distinguished,
3 points for proficient,
2 points for apprentice,
1 point for novice.

for young learners:
3 points for ready to share
2 points for on the way,
1 point for just beginning.

Rubrics often include sample responses that show various points on the scale.

self-assessment and self-reflection: the process of having students look at their own work and apply agreed-upon criteria to judge the quality of their work. When students self-reflect, they think about their own learning and use both their thoughts and collections of their work as a mirror to look at their own strengths, weaknesses and overall achievement.

standard: a statement about what is valued that can be used for making a judgment or quality.

student-centered curriculum: a curriculum that takes into account what students already know to build and refine their understanding of new concepts.

technology: application of knowledge to develop tools, materials, techniques, and systems to help people meet and fulfill their needs.

validity: refers to whether an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, a valid assessment of mathematics problem solving would focus on the student's ability to solve problems and not on the ability to read the problem.

TERMS OF SCIENCE
It is easy to misunderstand or loosely use scientific terms such as observation, fact, and hypothesis. But when we communicate about science, terms must be used with their proper meanings.

analyzing is the process used to make sense of the data collected in the testing of hypotheses. Analyzing may include organizing and categorizing data, graphing, or computer analysis to search for patterns in the data. Through analyzing we try to interpret the data in light of existing knowledge and evidence.

applying refers to the use of knowledge. Sometimes knowledge is used to expand explanation or theory; sometimes it is used to revise or build new hypotheses or theory. These are examples of application within science. Sometimes, however, knowledge or processes are used in practical ways such as building a bridge, inventing a new instrument or technique, or improving on an existing product or design. These are examples of application in technology.

categorizing is the process of putting objects or events together on the basis of a logical rationale. There are two kinds of categorizing, grouping and classifying. When scientists group objects, they put them together on the basis of a single property. Leaves might be grouped by type of venation, size, shape, and so on. Grouping is useful in revealing similarities and differences that otherwise might go unnoticed. Classifying involves putting items together on the basis of more than a single property at a time. For example, leaves with net venation and red color might be grouped together on these two characteristics while leaves with net venation and green color would be placed in a separate group. Scientists in all fields use the categorizing process to group and classify objects they work with.

communication skills­These skills enable students to obtain and share information effectively with others. They include the ability to express basic ideas, instructions, and information clearly both orally and in writing, to organize information in tables and simple graphs, and to draw diagrams. Communicating effectively also includes the ability to read and comprehend science and technology news as presented in newspapers and news broadcasts.

comparing builds on the process of observing. We learn much about the size, shape, color, texture and so on of objects by comparing them to different objects. We separate objects on the basis of similarities and differences. When we do, we develop concepts of higher-order relationships than we do by merely describing observations. To find out more about an unfamiliar object, scientists often match or compare it to something they know well. In fact, all scientific measures using rulers, balances, thermometers, watches, and so on, rely on comparing an unknown object to something that is known: the instrument.

computational skills­These include the ability to make mental calculations rapidly and accurately; to perform calculations using paper and pencil and calculators; and to estimate approximate answers to check on the reasonableness of other computations.

computer skills­Increasingly science and technology rely on effective use of computers to collect data, store and retrieve information, organize data in spreadsheets and graphs, communicate with other computers and researchers, and prepare written reports of research. Science teachers should also emphasize student development of computer skills of measuring using sensors, analyzing data, storing and retrieving data in various forms, and reporting and displaying results of their scientific investigations.

decision-making skills­These thinking skills enable students to arrive at appropriate solutions to problem situations, to judge assertions, to separate facts from opinions. These skills include identifying problems, seeking alternative solutions, applying knowledge, evaluating alternatives, and selecting a course of action.

fact­When our observations are confirmed and found to be repeatable, they become facts. The repeatability of an observation means there is little doubt about it, though it cannot be accepted with absolute certainty. For example, everyone can observe that a student in the classroom is smiling. Therefore, this is a fact.

hypothesis­A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of existing data that is based on previous knowledge and that guides further inquiry through observing or experimenting. Hypotheses are derived from inferences drawn from observations and based on theory. They are offered as possible explanations and are generally stated in such a way that they lead to testable predictions.

hypothesizing uses the understandings derived from experiments and theory along with the relating process to form testable statements. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that guides further inquiry through observing or experimenting. They are generally stated in such a way that they lead to testable predictions.

imaginative skills­Much of science and technology relies on the human capacity to create new ideas and solutions. Imagining, inventing, modeling, and creative thinking all play an important part in furthering our understanding in science and technology.

inference­An inference is reasoning based on observation and experience. To infer is to arrive at a decision or opinion by reasoning from known facts. For example, I can see that the student described above is smiling. From this, I can infer from my experience that he is happy. It is particularly easy to think that an inference is a fact. It takes critical thinking to distinguish between the two. In the example of the smiling student, I do not know that the student is happy. He may be smiling for some other reason.

inferring is the process of making logical conclusions through reasoning from evidence. In inferring we make logical statements about events that cannot be dealt with directly because of time or space. For example, we know a great deal about life on Earth in the age of dinosaurs by making inferences from existing data. Similarly, we know a great deal about our universe by making inferences from observable data here on Earth. Through evidence and reasoning, we make inferences about the movement of continents, and from those inferences develop a theory of plate tectonics. But inferences, no matter how logical, are never final. They must be tested to determine if they are true.

interpersonal skills­These are related to communication skills, but are more specific about individual behaviors. They include cooperating, sharing, listening, participating, and leading. They also include respecting others. Interpersonal skills enable students to work well with others to get a job done.

law­A law is a statement of what always occurs under certain circumstances. It generally refers to a sequence of events in nature that have been observed to occur with unvarying uniformity under the same conditions. Examples include the law of gravitation, the gas laws, the laws of motion, and the law of conservation of energy.

manipulative skills­These include correctly handling organisms, making and assembling equipment, and using measuring instruments and tools.

measuring length, weight, mass, volume, temperature, density, time, and so on is essential to understanding science. To find out more about unfamiliar objects, scientists often measure them using appropriate tools. Measuring is a skill that assumes knowledge of measuring instruments and systems and the ability to communicate the results of the measurements taken.

observation­All science is based on observations. We use our senses to gather information about the world around us. Even when we use hand lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other instruments, the information we gather must be filtered through our senses.

observing is the most fundamental scientific thinking process. Only through observing are we able to acquire information about the world around us. Given objects to play with the young student will look, touch, smell, taste, and listen to them. These sensory actions enable the learner to construct a view of the world and how it works. Similarly, scientists gather information about Mars by placing a space probe that can observe its surface and thereby extend their human capabilities. By observing, humans gather information as raw material for constructing fundamental knowledge.

ordering is the process of putting objects or events into a linear format. There are two kinds of ordering, seriation and sequencing. Seriation is organizing objects along a continuum­from rough to smooth, dim to light, sharp to dull, light to heavy, soft to loud, and so on. Seriating objects can involve an almost limitless number of properties and are useful in establishing scientific scales such as for wind speed (Beaufort scale), temperature (Celsius and Fahrenheit scales), elevation (above and below sea level), brightness (star magnitude scales), and sound (decibel scale).

Events arranged in a sequence tell a logical story. In sequencing, events are ordered by time from earliest to latest action, from first moment to last moment, and so on. Sequences tell stories of two types, linear and cyclical. Linear sequences tell us about the growth and decay of a plant or animal, the motion of an object, and the cause and effect of an event. Cyclical sequences tell us about recurring events such as the water cycle, the passing of seasons, or the phases of the moon.

organizational skills­In getting a job done, especially in group work, organizational skills are called for. These include organizing group members and equipment for action, initiating leadership, taking responsibility for getting and returning equipment and supplies, keeping data neatly arranged in tables, keeping science notebooks neat and orderly so that needed data can easily be retrieved, and arranging science apparatus in efficient ways. Organizational skills enable students to plan and carry out activities effectively.

predicting is the process by which we state what will happen or be observed as the result of some action or experiment. Predictions are derived from theory and hypotheses and set expectations for a future event. The hallmark of a good hypothesis is an accurate prediction.

prediction­Prediction means to state what will happen or be observed as the result of some action or experiment. Predictions are based on previous observations, experience, or reasoning.

process skills­Scientists use their senses to collect information about the world around them, observing its characteristics as objectively as possible. These observations may include measuring properties of matter or time of events. They test what they know against what they don't know by comparing features and behaviors for similarities and differences. They organize their understandings by ordering and categorizing them into broader, more general groupings. They study interactions among objects and describe the events, relating factors that reveal deeper understanding about causes and effects. Scientists hypothesize and predict what will happen based on their accumulated knowledge and upon the events they expect to take place, inferring something that they have not yet observed. They test their hypotheses against observed phenomena using designed experiments. The collect and analyze their data, synthesizing what is known with what is being revealed. As their knowledge grows they apply both knowledge and processes to useful purposes to extend explanation or create new artifacts.

relating means seeing relationships between and among things in our environment. Relationships might involve interactions, dependencies, and cause and effect events. In the sciences, information about relationships can be descriptive (as it is in much of ecology) or experimental (as it generally is in physical science). Descriptive relationships are derived in situations where direct experimentation is not possible. Many of the ideas in astronomy are based on description. We cannot do direct experiments on galaxies or black holes, yet we know a great deal about them. Determining relationships experimentally frequently involves controlling and manipulating variables in such a way that the scientist can determine which of the factors affects the observed event the most. The ability to separate variables and systematically test each one while holding others constant to determine which are relevant and which have no effect is very powerful. By manipulating variables the scientist is able to test hypotheses.

sensory skills­These include seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting; all the ways that we take in information about the world around us.

synthesizing is the process of connecting existing knowledge with new discoveries to develop a new or deeper understanding of phenomena. It is through synthesizing that we build our own personal knowledge as well as build the body of knowledge known as science.

testing is the process of designing and carrying out experiments to determine if our hypotheses, predictions, and inferences are true. The test usually consists of asking questions of nature, questions that are implied in the hypotheses. The theory and hypotheses we are dealing with also guide the kinds of observations we will make to determine if our ideas are correct.

theory­A scientific theory is a logical explanation or model based on observation, facts, hypotheses, experimentation, and reasoning that attempts to explain a range of natural phenomena. Scientific theories are constantly subject to testing, modification, and refutation as new evidence and ideas emerge. Theories also have predictive capabilities that guide further investigation. Theory and hypothesis are sometimes confused. Theory implies a greater body of tested evidence and a greater degree of probability than hypothesis. Examples of current theories are the theory of evolution, the theory of plate tectonics, the kinetic molecular model of matter, the big bang theory for the origin of the universe, and the theory of relativity.